FILE: <ch-11.htm> GENERAL INDEX [Navigate to MAIN MENU ]
|
BLACK SCALE Saissetia oleae (Olivier) -- Homoptera, Coccidae (Contacts) ------
CLICK on Photo to enlarge & search for Subject Matter with Ctrl/F. GO TO ALL: Bio-Control Cases
Black scale became a pest in southern California as early as 1880, and
biological control was begun in 1981-92 with the introduction of some
coccinellid beetles from Australia.
Two species, Orcus
chalybeus and Rhizobius
ventralis Erichson were
established (Essig 1931). Several
other species of Orcus, Rhizobius and Leis were obtained in Australia
during 1892-1902, without becoming established (Bartlett 1978). The parasitoid Scutellista cyanea Motschulsky was imported
from South Africa in 1901, followed by about 30 other species of parasitoids
and 10 coccinellids over six decades (Bartlett 1978, Luck 1981). Of nine established parasitoids, Metaphycus
helvolus (Compere), M. lounsbury (Howard), M. bartletti
Annecke & Mynhardt, S. cyanea, and Diversinervus elegans Silvestri were
established. Although some control
was obtained with the introduction of Metaphycus lounsburyi
in 1918 (Smith 1921), substantial control was only obtained after the
establishment of M. helvolus (Bartlett 1978). Kennett et al.
(1999) point out that
various aspects of the long campaign against S. oleae
which are of especial interest include (1) the emphasis placed on
introduction of coccinellid predators following the earlier success with Rodolia cardinalis for biological control of the cottony-cushy
scale; none established. (2) the apparent displacement of Moranila californica (Howard), another chalcidoid egg predator, by S. cyanea (Flanders 1958), (3) failure of the introduced Coccophagus species to attack S. oleae on citrus (Clausen 1956), (4) the erroneous
introduction of the hyperparasitoid Quaylea whittieri
Girault, which adversely affected M.
lounsbury, but which
disappeared in later years (Flanders 1943); (5) the different degrees of
control achieved on univoltine (inland) and bivoltine (coastal) scale
populations; (6) the role of host feeding by M. helvolus
in reducing S. oleae populations (DeBach
1943); (7) the near eradication of the nigra scale, Saissetia nigra
Nietner, by M. helvolus (Smith 1944), and (8)
the elimination of Eucalymnatus
tesselatus (Signoret) by M. helvolus prior to its becoming a major pest (Bartlett
1969). Lampson
& Morse (1992) appraised the status of biological control in
California. Black scale surveys were
made between Sept 1987-1989. From 308
collections of black scale-infested citrus, olive, and oleander twigs from 19
sites in southern California, 1,610 specimens were collected. Nine primary and six secondary parasitoids
were identified. Four primaries wer
abundant in southern California: Metaphycus bartletti Anneck & Mynhardt, M. helvolus
(Compere), Scutellista caerulea (Fonscolombe) (= S. cyanea Motschulsky), and Diversinervus elegans
Silvestri. Common secondaries were Marietta mexicana (Howard), Cheiloneurus
noxius Compere and Tetrastichus
minutus (Howard). In coastal southern California, M. bartletti was the most abundant, followed in order by D. elegans, S. caerulea
and M. helvolus. In the
intermediate and interior regions, M.
helvolus was most
abundant. D. elegans
was second most abundant in the intermediate region, but rare in the
interior. M. bartletti
was second in abundance in the interior and third in the intermediate
(Lampson & Morse 1992).
In Australia most of the early efforts to control S. oleae
involved movement of native natural enemies, especially coccinellids, to
different states (Wilson 1960).
Exotic parasitoids were also introduced, including Moranila californica and Scutellista
cyanea from California,
and Metaphycus lounsbury from South Africa. Excellent control was achieved in Western
Australia through the action of all of these parasitoids (Wilson 1960). Metaphycus
helvolus was introduced from
California in 1942 and became established in South Australia. Wilson (1960) reported that S. oleae assumed only minor importance presently due to the
action of native and exotic natural enemies, which was not the case in California.
Biological control was begun in Chile in 1903 with the introduction of
Rhizobius ventralis, but concentrated
efforts were not made until the 1930's when eight species of parasitoids,
including Metaphycus lounsburyi, were introduced from
California and Peru (Graf Marin & Cortes 1939, Bartlett 1978). Only S.
cyanea became established,
however. Metaphycus helvolus
was released in 1943, but establishment failed. A later attempt in 1951 resulted in this parasitoid's
establishment (Kennett et al. 1999). Metaphycus lounsburyi appeared in Chile around 1944, presumably by
dispersing from Peru where it had been introduced to control S. oleae on olives (Duran 1944). Metaphycus lounsburyi and M. helvolus were both thought to be highly effective in areas
where the scale was bivoltine, but not so effective in univoltine populations
(Gonzalez 1969). Other parasitoids
noted as contributing to overall biological control were Coccophagus caridei (Brethes), Scutellista cyanea and Metaphycus flavus (Howard) (also see
Wille, 1941, 1952, 1958; Caballero 1951, Beingolea 1956, Gonzalez & Rojas
1966).
Only recently were attempts made to control S. oleae
in the Mediterranean region, following an increase in severity of
infestations with the advent of synthetic insecticides (Argyriou & DeBach
1968, Rivnay 1968, Greathead 1976).
Several parasitoids were introduced into France around 1953, followed
by efforts in Italy in 1960-71, Corsica in 1971, Iran in 1960, Greece in
1962-68 and Israel in 1963-78. Original introductions in France were unsuccessful (Kennett et
al. 1999) but later M. helvolus was finally
established in 1969 and M. lounsburyi in 1976 (Kennett et
al. 1999). Early efforts in Israel
also were unsuccessful, but later introductions made primarily from South
Africa during 1972-77 produced established populations of M. lounsburyi, M.
bartletti, M. helvolus, and S.
cyanea (Wysoki 1979). REFERENCES: [ Additional references may be found at: MELVYL
Library ] Annecke, D. P. & M. J. Mynhardt. 1972.
The species of the insidiosus
group of Metaphycus Mercet
in South Africa with notes on some extralimital species (Hymenoptera:
Encyrtidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr.
85: 227-74. Argov, Y. & Y. Rössler. 1988.
Introduction of berneficial insects into Israel for the control of
insect pests. Phytoparasitica 16: 303-15. Argyriou, L. C. 1963. Studies on the
morphology and biology of the black scale [Saissetia oleae
(Bernard)] in Greece. Ann. Inst.
Phytopath. Benaki,
N.S. 5: 353-77. Argyriou, L. C. 1984. Present status of
parasite complex in olive groves in Greece, p. 177-78. In: R. Vavalloro & A. Piavaux (eds.), C.E C.
Programme on Integrated and Biological Control. Final Report 1979/83. Comm. European Comm., Directorat,
Luxembourg. Argyriou, L. C. & P. DeBach. 1968.
The establishment of Metaphycus
helvolus (Compere) (Hym.
Encyrtidae) on Saissetia oleae (Bern) (Hom. Coccidae) in
olive groves in Greece. Entomophaga
13: 223-28. Bartlett, B. R. 1963. The contact
toxicity of some pesticide residues to hymenopterous parasites and
coccinellid predators. J. Econ.
Ent. 56: 694-98. Bartlett, B.
R. 1969. The biological
control campaigns against soft scales and mealybugs on citrus in
California. Proc. 1st Intern. Citrus
Symp., Riverside, Calif. 2: 875-78. Bartlett, B.
R. 1978. Coccidae. In: C. P. Clausen (ed.), Introduced Parasites
and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds.
U. S. Dept. Agric. Agric. Handbk. No. 480, Washington, D.C. 545 p. Bartlett, B. R. & R. A. Medved. 1966.
The biology and effectiveness of Diversinervus
elegans (Encyrtidae:
Hymenoptera), an imported parasites of lecaniine scale insects in
California. Ann. Ent. Soc.
Amer. 59: 974-76. Beingolea,
G. O. 1956. Estatus actual de la plaga de la quereza negra del olivo (Saissetia oleae Bern.) en los valles de Yauca e Ilo. Bol. Trimest. Extp. Agropecuarias (1955)
4: 18-22. Bellows, T. S., Jr. & J. G. Morse. 1988.
Residual toxicity following dilute or low-volume applications of
insecticides used for control of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae)
to four beneficial species in a citrus agroecosystem. J. Econ. Ent. 81: 892-98. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1982.
Comparative studies of the development of two species of Metaphycus (Hymenoptera:
Encyrtidae), introduced into Israel for the control of the Mediterranean
black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Homoptera:
Coccidae). Acta Oecol.
Oecol. Appl.
3: 281-86. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1988.
Colonization of Metaphycus
spp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for control of the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Homoptera: Coccidae), in Israel, p.
1209-13. In: R. Gore &
K. Mendel (eds.), Proc. 6th Internatl. Citrus Cong., Tel-Aviv, Israel, Mar.
6-11, 1988. Balaban Publ., Philadelphia. Bou…ek, Z. 1988.
Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): a biosystematic revision of
genera of fourteen families with a reclassification of species. C.A.B. Internatl., Oxon. p. 351. Caballero,
C. F.f 1951. Notas biológicas y económicas sobre la
conchuela negra (Saissetia oleae). Agric. Tec. (Santiago, Chile) 11: 54-63. Clausen, C.
P. 1956. Biological Control
of Insect Pests in the Continental United States. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. No. 1139. 151 p. Compere, H.
1939. The insect enemies of
the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bern.) in South
America. Calif. Univ. Publ. Ent.
7: 75-90. Compere, H.
1940. Parasites of the black
scale, Saissetia oleae (Bernard), in
Africa. Hilgardia 13: 387-425. Coulsen, J. R., A. Carrell & D. L.
Vincent. 1988. Releases of beneficial organisms in the
United States and territories, 1981.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Agr. Res. Serv. Misc. Publ. 1464. Daane, K. M. & L. E. Caltagirone. 1989.
Biological control of black scale in olives. Calif. Agr. 1989: 9-11. DeBach, P.
1943. The importance of host
feeding by adult parasites in the reduction of host populations. J. Econ. Ent. 36: 647-58. DeLotto, G.
1976. On the black scales of
southern Europe (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). J. Ent. Soc. So. Africa 39:
147-49. Duran,
M. 1944. Un enemigo natural de la Saissetia
oleae (Bern.) nuevo para
Chile. Agr. Tec. 4:
255-56. Lamport Gilbert &
Co., Ltd., Reading, England. 102 p. Ebeling, W.
1959. Subtropical Fruit
Pests. Univ. Calif. Div. Agr.
Sci. 436 p. Essig, E.
O. 1931. A History of
Entomology. The Macmillan Co., New
York. 1029 p. Flanders, S.
E. 1939. A black scale
parasite with promising qualities. J. Econ.
Ent. 32: 152. Flanders, S.
E. 1942. Metaphycus helvolus, an encyrtid parasite of the black scale. J. Econ. Ent. 35: 690-98. Flanders, S.
E. 1943a. Indirect hyperparasitization
and observations on three species of indirect hyperparasites. J. Econ. Ent. 36: 921-26. Flanders, S.
E. 1943b. The Argentine ant
versus the parasites of the black scale.
Calif. Citrogr. 28: 117, 128,
137. Flanders, S. E. 1953. Variations in
susceptibility of citrus-infesting coccids to parasitization. J. Econ. Ent. 46: 266-69. Flanders, S.
E. 1958. Moranila californica as a usurped parasite of Saissetia oleae. J. Econ. Ent. 51: 247-48. Gonzalez, R.
1969. Biological control of
citrus pests in Chile. Proc. 1st
Intern. Citrus Symp., Riverside, Calif. 2:
839-47. Gonzalez,
R. H. & S. P. Rojas. 1966. Estudio analítico del control biológico de
plagas agrícolas en Chile. Agric. Tech. 26: 133-47. Graebner, L., D. S. Moreno & J. L.
Baritelle. 1984. The Fillmore Citrus Protective
District: A success story in
integrated pest management. Bull.
Ent. Soc. Amer. 30: 27-33. Graf Marin,
A. & R. Cortes Peña. 1939.
The introduction of parasites into Chile against insect pests: a summary of the importations and their
results. Proc. 6th Pac. Sci. Congr.
4: 351-57. Greathead, D. J. 1976. A review of
biological control in western and southern Europe. Tech. Comm. No. 7, CIBC.
Commonw. Agr. Bur., Farnham Royal, Slough, England. 182 p. Ibrahim, A. G. & M. J. W. Copland. 1987.
Effects of temperature on the reproduction of Saissetia coffeae
and its parasitoids. Insect Sci.
Appl. 8: 351-53. Kennett, C.
E. 1980. Occurrence of Metaphycus bartletti Annecke & Mynhardt, a South African parasite
of black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) in central and
northern California (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae; Homoptra: Coccidae). Pan-Pac. Ent. 62: 363-69. Kennett, C.
E. 1986. A survey of the
parasitoid complex attacking black scale, Saissetia
oleae (Olivier), in central
and northern California (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea; Homoptera:
Coccidae). Pan-Pac. Ent. 62: 363-69. Kennett, C. E., J. A. McMurtry & J. W.
Beardsley. 1999. Biological control in subtropical and
tropical crops. In: Bellows, T. S. & T. W. Fisher (eds.), Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego, New York. 1046 p Lampson, L. J. & J. G. Morse. 1992.
A survey of black scale, Saissetia
oleae [Hom.: Coccidae]
parasitoids [Hym.: Chalcidoidea] in southern California. Entomophaga 37: 373-90. Luck, R.
F. 1981. Parasitic insects
introduced as biological control agents for arthropod pests. Handbk. Pest Management in Agric. 2: 125-284.
CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. Mazzone, P. & S. Viggiani. 1983.
Present status of the parasitoids of Saissetia oleae
(Oliv.) in Italy, with preliminary biological data on Prococcophagus varius
Silv. and P. saissetiae Ann. & Myn.
(Aphelinidae), recently introduced.
Proc. 13th Ital. Cong. Ent. p. 191-96. Mendel, Z.,
H. Podoler & D. Rosen. 1984.
Population dynamics of the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier), on citrus in Israel. 4. The natural
enemies. J. Ent. Soc. South Afr. 47: 1-21. Onillon, J. C., A. Panis & P. Brun. 1984.
Compte rendu des études et travaux menés dans le cadre du programme
lutte intégrée en agrumiculture contre les aleurodes et les cochenilles
lecanines et pseudococcines, p. 88-101.
In: R. Cavalloro & A. Piavaux (eds.),
C.E.C. Prog. on Integrated and Biological Control: Final Report 1979/1983. Panis, A. 1981a.
Note sur quelques insectes auxiliaires régulateurs des populations de
Pseudococcidae et de Coccidae (Homoptera, Coccoidea) des agrumes en Provence
orientale. Fruits 36: 49-52. Panis,
A. 1981b. Action des fourmis sur la biocenose parasitaire de la
cochenille noire des agrumes en France (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Coccidae). Fruits 36: 47-8. Quayle, H. J. & R. W. Rust. 1911.
The black scale. Univ. Calif.
Publ., Ent. Bull. 223: 151-200. Rivnay, E.
1968. Biological control of
pests in Israel (a review 1905-1965).
Israel J. Ent. 3: 1-156. Smith, H. S.
1921. Biological control of
the black scale in California. Bull.
Calif. Dept. Agric. 10: 127-37. Smith, H. S. & H. Compere. 1928.
A preliminary report on the insect parasites of the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bernard).
Univ. Calif. Publ. Ent. 4:
231-334. Smith, R. H.
1944. Bionomics and control of
the nigra scale, Saissetia nigra. Hilgardia 16: 225-88. Timberlake, P. H. 1916. Revision of the
parasitic hymenopterous insects of the genus Aphycus Mayr, with notice of some related genera. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 50: 561-640. van den Bosch,
R., B. R. Bartlett & S. E. Flanders.
1955. A search for natural enemies of lecaniine
scale insects in northern Africa for introduction into California. J. Econ. Ent. 48: 53-5. Viggiani,
G. & P. Mazzone. 1980. Metaphycus
bartletti Annecke et
Mynhardt (1972) (Hym., Encyrtidae), nuovo parassita introdotto in Italia per
la lotta biologica alla Saissetia
oleae (Oliv.) Boll. Lab. Ent. Agrar. Filippo Silvestri,
Portici 37: 171-76. Wille, J.
E. 1941. Resumen de los diferentes labores ejecutaadas en el Peru para combatir
insectos daninos por el "Método Biológico." 6th Pacific Sci. Cong. Proc. (1939) 4: 369-71. Wille, J. E.
1952. Entomológica agrícola
del Peru. Ed. 2. (Peru) Min. de Agr. Junta Sanid. Veg. 544 p. Wille, J.
E. 1958. El control biológico de los insectos agrícolas en el Peru. 10th Intern. Cong. Ent. Proc. (1956) 4: 519-23. Wilson, F.
1960. A review of the
biological control of insects and weeds in Australia and Australian New
Guinea. Tech. Commun. No. 1, CIBC.
Commonw. Agric. Bur., Farnham Royal, Slough, England. 102 p. Wysoki, M.
1979. Introductions of
beneficial insects into Israel by the Institute of Plant Protection
Quarantine Laboratory, ARO, during 1971-78.
Phytoparasitica 7: 101-06 |
